Geodetic condensation networks are built for. State geodetic condensation networks and geodetic survey justification. Detailed breakdown of building axes

3.16. Geodetic condensation networks are created at the stage of topographic and geodetic work during engineering surveys and survey work when carrying out buildings and structures.

3.17. At the survey stage, geodetic condensation networks are designed so that their accuracy can satisfy the requirements for surveying a construction site on a large scale and transferring the alignment axes of buildings and structures into nature.

3.18. When constructing condensation networks using the triangulation method, one should be guided by the requirements of the “Instructions for topographic and geodetic work during engineering surveys for industrial, agricultural, urban and settlement construction” SN 212-73. (Table 1).

Table 1

Indicators	Triangulation
	4th grade	1st category	2nd category
Triangle side length, km	1-5	0,5-5	0,25-3
Relative mean square error:
base (output) side, no more	1:100000	1:50000	1:20000
determined side of the network in the weakest place, no more	1:50000	1:20000	1:10000
The smallest value of the triangle angle between the directions of a given class (category)	20°	20°	20°
Limit discrepancy in a triangle	8"	20"	40"
Root mean square error of the measured angle (calculated from triangle residuals), no more	2"	5"	10"
Maximum length of a chain of triangles, km

3.19. The density of points of the state geodetic network and geodetic condensation networks must be no less than: in built-up areas - 4 points per 1 km; on undeveloped - 1 point per 1 km; in newly developed territories and in hard-to-reach areas, the density of points may be 1.5 times less.

3.20. Geodetic condensation networks of 1st and 2nd digits are constructed by any of the methods: triangulation, trilateration and polygonometry.

3.21. The triangulation method is used in open, hilly and mountainous areas. Depending on the nature of the territory, the configuration and size of the construction site, triangulation is developed in the form of a continuous network (chain) of triangles, insertions of individual points or their groups into triangles formed by points of networks of higher classes, and serifs.

3.22. Measuring horizontal angles at triangulation points is performed using circular techniques. The accuracy of measuring horizontal angles should be characterized by the indicators given in Table 2 (SN 212-73).

table 2

3.23. If a large number of directions arise at triangulation points, then measurements are carried out in groups with no more than eight directions included in each group. The initial direction remains the same in all groups.

3.24. Observations at triangulation points of the 4th class, 1st and 2nd categories are allowed to be made from the ground (when installing the theodolite on a tripod). The sighting beam should pass no closer than 1.5 m from the earth's surface.

3.25. When observing external geodetic signs on sighting cylinders, the elements of the reductions are graphically determined. The discrepancies between two definitions of linear elements should not exceed 10 mm.

3.26. If it is impossible to use a graphical method for determining centering and reduction due to the significant size of the linear elements, the determination of centering and reduction is carried out by direct measurement or analytical method.

3.27. When working on the short sides of a construction site, centerings and reductions should be avoided by installing sighting marks in place of the theodolite.

3.28. Measurement of base (output) sides in independent triangulation networks is carried out using light rangefinders various types or basic devices such as BP-2M.

The length of the base (output) side of the triangulation must be at least: 2 km - for the 4th class, 1 km - for the 1st class and 0.5 km - for the 2nd class.

3.29. The maximum discrepancies in the lengths of the base (output) sides of the triangulation, determined by the light range finder at different frequencies, should not exceed: 4 cm with a side length of up to 1 km; 5 cm - from 1 km to 2 km; 6 cm - no more than 2 km.

3.30. When measuring bases and basal sides with Invar wires, the latter are compared twice on stationary comparators no earlier than two months before and no later than 2 months after the basis measurements.

3.31. Measuring bases using a basic device is carried out using tripods, and on unstable ground using stakes.

3.32. Corrections for the wire equations, temperature, reduction to the horizon, projection to an ellipsoid and reduction to a plane are introduced into the measured length of the bases.

3.33. When performing linear measurements in polygonometry of the 4th class, 1st and 2nd categories, one should be guided by the requirements of Instruction SN 212-73.

3.34. The construction of networks by the trilateration method using light rangefinders should be carried out in accordance with the requirements of CH 212-73 (Table 3).

Table 3

3.35. Using the polygonometry method, the state geodetic network is condensed to a density that ensures the laying of survey routes.

3.36. When constructing a alignment network using the polygonometry method, the requirements of SN 212-73 must be observed (Table 4).

Table 4

Indicators	Polygonometry
	4th grade	1st category	2nd category
Limit stroke length, km:
separate
between the origin and nodal points
Between nodal points			1,5
Limit perimeter of the landfill, km
Length of travel sides, km	0,25-0,8	0,12-0,6	0,08-0,3
Number of parties in a course, no more
Relative motion error, no more	1:25000	1:10000	1:5000
Root mean square error of angle measurement (based on residuals in moves and polygons), no more	3"	5"	10"

3.37. The design of the polygonometric network is drawn up taking into account the permissible length of theodolite passages laid for topographic survey.

3.38. Newly established polygonometry points are tied by measuring distances to at least three points of local objects or contours with drawing up an outline.

3.39. Angles in polygonometric networks are measured using circular techniques using a three-stand system in compliance with the requirements of SN 212-73 (Table 5).

Table 5

3.40. Acceptable values ​​of angular discrepancies in polygonometry moves and polygons are calculated using the formulas for the 4th class and 1st and 2nd categories, respectively: ; and , where is the number of corners in a course or polygon (including adjacent corners).

3.41. The sides of class 4 polygonometry are measured with electronic rangefinders. Depending on the required accuracy and operating conditions, various types of light and radio rangefinders can be used.

3.42. In polygonometry of the 1st and 2nd categories, linear measurements are made with light rangefinders, the parallactic method, optical rangefinders, length meter AD-1M, AD-2, and invar wires.

3.43. To determine the sides using the parallactic method, optical theodolites T2 and equivalent precision, Invar two- and three-meter base rods and reticle marks are used.

Basic rods are compared on field comparators with an error of no more than 1:200000.

3.44. To measure the length of the sides of polygonometry of the 2nd category using the rangefinder-basic method, a reduction tacheometer "Redta-002", rangefinders D-2, DNR-5 are used. Lines are measured in forward and reverse directions.

3.45. The lengths of the sides of polygonometry of the 1st and 2nd categories can be measured with a length meter AD-1M and AD-2. Measurements of sides in 1st category polygonometry are performed in two ways, in 2nd level polygonometry - in one.

3.46. When using Invar wires in moves of the 4th class of polygonometry, measurements are made with two wires (tapes) in one direction; in moves of the 1st category - with one Invar or steel wire in the forward and reverse directions, or in one direction with two wires; in moves of the 2nd category - with one wire (tape) in one direction.

During the work, measuring instruments are checked on a field comparator at least once a month.

3.47. The heights of polygonometry points are determined from geometric or trigonometric leveling. To thicken the altitude base in the territories of cities, towns and industrial sites, the development of leveling networks of classes II, III and IV is regulated.

When constructing a high-rise base, you should be guided by the requirements of SN 212-73 (Tables 6 and 7).

Table 6

Indicators	Leveling classes
	II	III	IV
Perimeter of the landfill or leveling line, km	500-600	150-200
Root mean square error per 1 km travel, mm:
random
systematic	0,4	0,8
Normal length of the sighting beam, m	65-75	75-100	100-150
Distance inequality, m:
at the station
during
Height of the sighting beam above the ground, m	0,5	0,3	0,2
Permissible differences in elevations, mm:
travel up to 15 stations per 1 km
over 15 stations
Permissible differences in elevations at the station, mm:
on precision slats	0,7	1,5	-
on checkerboards	-
Allowable discrepancies of excesses in polygons, mm:	-
up to 15 stations per 1 km of travel		-	-
over 15 stations		-	-
Magnification of the level pipe	40-44*	30-35*	25-30*
Cylindrical level division price	12"	15"	25"
Permissible errors of meter interval of the staff, mm	±0.3	±0.5	±1

Designations: - stroke length, km; - number of stations.

Table 7

3.48. Leveling condensation networks are created in the form of separate passages, systems of passages (polygons) or in the form of independent networks and are tied to at least two initial state leveling signs (marks, benchmarks) of the highest class.

3.49. The high-altitude alignment base on the construction site must be fixed with permanent signs in such a way that the marks are transmitted to the construction sites from two benchmarks from no more than three leveling stations.

3.50. Leveling signs are laid in the walls of permanent buildings and structures built at least two years before the laying of the sign. Marks are laid at a height of 1.5-1.7 m, and benchmarks at a height of 0.3-0.6 m above the ground surface (sidewalk, blind area, etc.). Ground benchmarks are laid only in the absence of permanent buildings and structures.

3.51. Wall marks and benchmarks are leveled after three days, and ground marks after 10 days after their laying. In permafrost areas, ground benchmarks are leveled: with the pit method of laying in the next field season; when laying by drilling after 10 days; when laying with soil thawing after 2 months.

3.52. Class II leveling is performed using N-05, N-05K and equivalent levels. Leveling is carried out using slats with an Invar strip by combining one pair of crutches in the forward and reverse directions.

When using levels with a self-aligning line of sight, the inequality of distances from the level to the slats at the station is allowed up to 3 m, and in the section up to 5 m.

Calculation of elevations at stations and between marks (benchmarks) is rounded to 0.05 mm, and the average elevation is rounded to 0.01 mm.

Levels and slats with an Invar strip are subjected to laboratory and field verification and research in accordance with the Leveling Instructions.

3.53. Class III leveling is performed with N-3, N-3K and other levels using one pair of crutches in the forward and reverse directions. The slats are double-sided checkered, with centimeter divisions, and single-sided lined, with divisions of 0.5 cm. Leveling is carried out using levels with an optical micrometer using the “alignment” method. In other cases, readings on the slats are taken along the middle thread.

3.54. IV class leveling is performed using N-3, N-3K levels and equivalent ones. Double-sided checkerboards 3 m long with centimeter divisions are used. Leveling passages are laid in one direction.

3.55. Before calculating the discrepancies of the leveling moves, the calculations of the average excesses are checked, the accumulation of inequalities in the distances from the level to the slats are determined, and corrections are introduced into the sum of the excesses for the average length of 1 m of a pair of slats.

3.56. Vertical angles during trigonometric leveling are measured in one step at two positions of the vertical circle (CL and CP) with readings along three threads. It is allowed to measure the vertical angle in three steps using one middle thread.

The measurement of vertical angles must be carried out in conditions of better visibility, in the period from 8-9 to 17 hours. The measurement is performed sequentially in all directions at one position, and then at the second position of the vertical circle. Fluctuations in the values ​​of vertical angles and zero position, calculated from individual techniques, should not exceed 15".

The heights of the target and the instruments are measured with a comparable tape measure twice with an accuracy of 0.01 m.

3.57. When trigonometric leveling in condensation networks, one can ignore the correction for the deviation of the plumb line from the normal to the ellipsoid and the correction for the transition from the measured difference in heights to the difference in normal heights.

The marks of the centers of points in the condensation networks are determined by trigonometric leveling on all sides of the network in the forward and reverse directions.

Download from Depositfiles

1 Planned condensation networks. Schemes for constructing planned networks

The geodetic basis for large-scale topographic surveys at scales of 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500 is:

– state geodetic network (GGS or DGM);

– bit geodetic condensation networks (RGSS or RGMZ);

– survey geodetic networks.

The State Geodetic Network (GN) is the main geodetic basis for topographic surveys of all scales.

The State Geological Survey of Ukraine unites the planned and high-altitude geodetic networks into a single whole.

The planned geodetic network is divided into:

– astronomical and geodetic network of classes 1 and 2 (AGS-1, AGS-2 or AGM-1, AGM-2);

– geodetic condensation network of class 3 (GSS-3 or GMZ-3).

The high-altitude geodetic network (VGS or VGM) is divided into:

– leveling networks of classes I and II;

– leveling networks of classes III and IV.

The SGS of Ukraine (DSU) is created in accordance with the requirements of the current « The main provisions of the State Geodetic Survey of Ukraine » , approved by Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated June 8, 1998 No. 844, as well as instructions and other regulatory documents.

The average density of GGS points to create a survey geodetic basis for topographic surveys must be adjusted to:

– in areas that are subject to survey at a scale of 1:5000, up to one point of triangulation, trilateration or polygonometry per 20-30 square meters. km and one benchmark per 10-15 sq. km;

– in areas that are subject to survey at a scale of 1:2000, up to one point of triangulation, trilateration or polygonometry per 5-15 square meters. km and one benchmark per 5-7 sq. km;

– in built-up areas of cities, the density of GHS points should be at least 1 point per 5 sq. km.

A further increase in the density of the geodetic basis of large-scale surveys is achieved by constructing bit condensation geodetic networks and the survey basis.

Discharge geodetic condensation networks (RGSS or RGMZ) are the basis for topographic surveys at scales of 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500 and engineering work that is carried out in cities, villages, industrial and civil construction sites, during construction underground communications, in surveying work, during land management, land reclamation, land cadastre, etc.

RGSS is created by polygonometry, trilateration, triangulation or a combination of these methods. Subject to availability of appropriate technical means and observation conditions, determination of coordinates of bit geodetic condensation networks can be performed using GPS systems.

RGSS are divided into:

– polygonometry, trilateration and triangulation networks of class 4;

– networks of polygonometry, trilateration and triangulation of 1st and 2nd categories;

– networks of technical and trigonometric leveling.

RGSS are created in accordance with the requirements of the instructions « Instructions for topographic surveying at scales 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500 (GKNTA-2.04-02-98)" , approved by order of the Main Department of Geodesy, Cartography and Cadastre under the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated April 9, 1998 No. 56.

The construction of all geodetic networks is subject to the basic principle of performing geodetic work: from the general to the specific, i.e. from the highest accuracy class to the lowest and from a sparse network to a more frequent one (condensed).

The density of the geodetic base should be increased by building geodetic condensation networks in cities, villages and other populated areas and industrial sites of at least four points per 1 sq. km in the built-up part and one point in undeveloped areas. To support engineering surveys and construction in cities and industrial sites, the density of geodetic networks can be increased to eight points per 1 sq. km.

The density of the geodetic basis for surveying on a scale of 1:5000 of territories outside populated areas should be brought to at least one point per 7-10 sq. km, and for surveying at a scale of 1:2000 - to one point per 2 sq. km.

2 Polygonometry 4 classes, 1 and 2 categories. General regulatory requirements.

Polygonometry is one of the methods for creating a state geodetic network (DGM) and geodetic condensation networks (GMZ-3, RGMZ). Determining the position of geodetic points using polygonometry methods comes down to laying passages on the ground in which all angles and all line lengths are measured. If it is necessary to provide geodetic support for large areas, a system of polygonometric traverses is created, which form polygonometric networks consisting of polygonometric traverses and closed polygons.

Polygonometry networks of class 4, 1 and 2 categories are created in the form of individual moves or a system of moves with one or more node points (Fig. 1–3). A separate course of polygonometry must be based on two starting points. At the starting points, adjacent angles are measured.

As an exception, it is permitted:

– laying out a polygonometry path based on two starting points, without angular reference on one of them;

– use coordinate reference to the starting points.

Laying hanging passages is not allowed.

Polygonometry of the 4th class is constructed with reduced accuracy relative to the polygonometry of the 3rd class of the State Geological Survey of Ukraine, polygonometry of the 1st category with lower accuracy relative to the polygonometry of the 4th class, polygonometry of the 2nd category - with lower accuracy in relation to the 1st category.

When creating polygonometry networks of class 4, 1 and 2 categories, you should adhere to the requirements established by the instructions and given in table. 1.

Table 1.1 – Basic parameters of polygonometry IV class, 1st and 2nd categories
Options	Polygonometry
1. Limit stroke length, km separate between the origin and the nodal point between hubs
2. Limit perimeter of the landfill, km
3. Lengths of the sides of the course, km
4. Number of parties in a course, no more
5. Permissible relative stroke error
6. Mean square error of the measured angle (based on residuals in moves and polygons), arc seconds, no more
7. Angular discrepancy of the move or polygon, arc seconds, Where n– number of angles in a course, no more
Note: table is from

Geodetic condensation networks

Condensation networks can be created as independent reference geodetic networks, or in addition to the state geodetic network. They are divided into plan ones, consisting of polygonometry of the 4th class and triangulation, trilateration and polygonometry of the 1st and 2nd classes, and high-altitude, created by technical leveling (see Chapter 8).

Rice. 6.7. Triangulation schemes of the 1st and 2nd categories:

1-original geodetic point, 2-original side of triangulation; 3-defined point, 4-basis, 5-sided triangulation with two-way directions, 6-way one-way directions

Triangulation of the 1st and 2nd categories is a continuous network (Fig. 6.7, a) or a chain of triangles (see Fig. 6.2), as well as individual points obtained by serifs from points of the state network (Fig. 6.7, b) , and for triangulation of the 2nd category - and from network points of the 1st category. Polygonometric networks of the 4th class and 1st and 2nd categories are created from individual moves and their systems.

Individual moves must be based on two initial (higher accuracy class) points.

Below are the indicators for planned geodetic condensation networks, according to which they are created when performing topographic and geodetic surveys on a scale of 1: 500, 1: 5000.

The coordinates and heights of points of geodetic condensation networks are calculated in the coordinate system in the Gaussian projection and the Baltic height system.

Technical leveling to create high-altitude geodetic justification points is carried out using the geometric method by laying closed or open passages. Errors in such strokes should not exceed (50 root(L)) mm, where L is the stroke length, km.

Principles of constructing state geodetic networks.

Geodesic networks - a set of points fixed on the ground, the position of which is determined in a common coordinate system.

Types of topographic surveys.

Geodetic work during engineering surveys.

Elements of geodetic alignment works.

Methods for laying out structures.

Transfer of development projects to the area.

28. Geodetic preparation of layout data and its methods.

Detailed breakdown of building axes.

The method of laying out the axes of structures is that two linear measuring instruments, for example tape measures, are laid from the starting points in a given direction until they intersect with each other. In this case, the first tape measure is laid from the first starting point, crossing the direction of the split axis, the second tape measure is laid from the second starting point, crossing the direction of the split axis, and the intersection points of the split axis and the tape measures are chosen arbitrarily. The tape measures are laid outside the point of their mutual intersection, then readings are taken from the tapes at the point of their intersection, from the initial readings of the tapes that coincide with the starting points, the distances calculated in accordance with the given expressions are set aside.

Geodetic support for the construction of the underground part of buildings and structures.

1) Selection of a construction site (collection, analysis and synthesis of geodetic material);

2) Builds. design (topographic, geod. surveys, geod. support, other types of surveys);

3) Manufacturing builds. structures (monitoring compliance with the geometric parameters of elements and the manufacture of structures);

4) Prepare. construction period (creation of a geological layout of the base, engineering preparation of the territory, which includes planning work, laying underground communications and underground roads);

5) The main period of construction (removal of the axes of structural elements, geod. support for construction and installation production during the construction of underground and above-ground parts of the building, execution);

6) Completion of construction (drawing and submitting a technical report on the results of work performed during the construction process)

1.2 Geodetic condensation networks

Currently the most effective method creating a geodetic network, including geodetic condensation networks, is a method associated with satellite technologies (GL0NASS, GPS). However, this method requires receiving equipment, the high cost of which prevents its widespread use. Therefore, along with highly efficient satellite technologies, they also use traditional methods. It should be noted that when performing geodetic work indoors and in cramped conditions, when observing a constellation of satellites is impossible or difficult, traditional methods are the only possible ones for solving many problems.

Geodetic condensation networks are built using triangulation and polygonometry methods to condense the state geodetic network to the density necessary to create a survey justification for large-scale surveys. Triangulation of the 1st and 2nd categories is developed in open and mountainous areas. Where it is impossible or impractical to perform triangulation of the 1st and 2nd categories due to terrain conditions, a polygonometric network of the 4th class, 1st and 2nd categories is developed. It should be noted that class 4 polygonometry for large-scale surveys is performed with reduced accuracy compared to state surveys.

When creating polygonometry, they perform the entire complex of basic geodetic work: angular and linear measurements, leveling. Angles at polygonometry points are measured using the individual angle method or circular techniques using optical theodolites. T1, T2, T5 with a centering accuracy of 1 mm. Heights to all polygonometry points are transferred by class IV or technical leveling. Lines are measured directly: with light rangefinders, suspended measuring instruments, or indirectly - the lengths of the sides of the stroke are calculated using auxiliary quantities.

When carrying out various national economic, including land management, activities over a large territory, topographic maps and plans are required, drawn up on the basis of a network of geodetic points, the planned position of which on the earth's surface is determined in a single coordinate system, and the altitude - in a single elevation system. In this case, geodetic points can be only planned or only high-altitude, or simultaneously - planned and high-altitude.

A network of geodetic points is located on the ground according to the project drawn up for it. Network points are fixed on the ground with special signs.

A geodetic network built over a large area in a single system of coordinates and heights makes it possible to properly organize the work of surveying the area. With such a network, surveying can be carried out independently in different places, which will not cause difficulties in drawing up a general plan or map. In addition, the use of a network of geodetic points leads to a more uniform distribution of the influence of measurement errors over the territory and provides control over the geodetic work being carried out.

Geodetic networks are built according to the principle of transition from the general to the specific, i.e., first, over a large area, a sparse network of points is built with very high accuracy, and then this network is condensed sequentially in stages with points, the construction of which is carried out at each stage with less accuracy. There are several such stages of condensation. The condensation of the geodetic network is carried out in such a way that the result is a network of points of such density (density) and accuracy that these points can serve as direct support for the upcoming survey.

Planned geodetic networks are constructed mainly by the methods of triangulation, polygonometry and trilateration.

The triangulation method consists of constructing a network of triangles in which all angles of the triangles and at least two sides at different ends of the network are measured (the second side is measured to control the measurement of the first side and establish the quality of the entire network). Based on the length of one of the sides and the angles of the triangles, the sides of all Triangles of the network are determined. Knowing the directional angle of one of the sides of the network and the coordinates of one of the points, you can then calculate the coordinates of all points.

The polygonometry method consists of constructing a network of passages in which all angles and sides are measured. Polygonometric traverses differ from theodolite traverses in their higher accuracy of measuring angles and lines. This method is usually used in closed areas. The introduction of electromagnetic rangefinders into production makes it expedient to use polygonometry in open areas.

The trilateration method consists of constructing a network of triangles by measuring all sides of the triangles. In some cases, linear-angular networks are created, which are networks of triangles in which the sides and angles are measured (all or in the required combination).

Planned geodetic networks are divided into the state geodetic network; condensation networks of 1st and 2nd categories; shooting justification - filming network and individual points.

1.3 Special Purpose Networks (SPN)

Basic boundary network (MBN) is a special-purpose geodetic network (GSSN), which is created for geodetic support of the state land cadastre, land monitoring, land management and other activities for managing the country's land fund.

Boundary networks are created in cases where the accuracy and density of existing geodetic networks do not meet the requirements for their construction.

The support boundary network is divided into two classes: OMS1 and OMS2. The accuracy of their construction is characterized by the root mean square errors of the relative positions of adjacent points, respectively, no more than 0.05 and 0.10 m. The location and density of the OMS points (reference boundary marks - OMZ) must ensure the quick and reliable restoration of all boundary marks on the ground. Density of compulsory medical insurance points per 1 sq. km should be at least 4 points within the city and 2 points within other settlements, in small settlements - at least 4 points per settlement. On agricultural lands and other lands, the required density of compulsory medical insurance points is justified by calculations based on the requirements for planning and cartographic materials.

Whenever possible, compulsory medical insurance points are located on state or municipally owned lands, taking into account their accessibility. Compulsory medical insurance points may not coincide with boundary signs of the boundaries of the land plot.

The reference boundary network must be linked to at least two points of the state geodetic network. It is recommended to determine the planned and altitude position of compulsory medical insurance points using geodetic satellite systems (GPS or GLONASS) in static observation mode. In the absence of such a possibility, the planned position of points can be determined by triangulation and polygonometry methods, geodetic intersections, ray systems, as well as the photogrammetric method (for OMS2); the heights of supporting boundary marks are determined by geometric or trigonometric leveling.

The planned position of compulsory medical insurance points is usually determined in local coordinate systems. At the same time, the connection of local coordinate systems with the national coordinate system must be ensured. The heights of points are determined in the Baltic height system.

To mark the boundaries of a land plot on the ground, boundary markers are fixed at the turning points of the boundaries, the position of which is determined relative to the nearest points of the original geodetic basis. The boundaries of plots passing through “living tracts” are fixed with boundary signs only at the junctions with upland boundaries.

1.4 Film networks

A survey network is a set of points determined on the ground in addition to the points of the state geodetic network to directly provide topographic surveys.

Survey network points are determined analytically - triangulation, theodolite traverses, serifs and graphically - using scales and cypregel. The initial basis for the development of survey networks are points of the state geodetic network.

When drawing up a project for a terrain reconnaissance survey network in order to determine the installation locations of its points, you should be guided by the following:

1 between points of the survey network, mutual visibility and favorable conditions for measuring the line must be ensured;

2 in a built-up area, passages must be laid in such a way as to provide favorable conditions for photographing buildings and structures;

3 the location of survey network points should ensure convenient installation of geodetic instruments when constructing a survey and justification for survey work;

4 points of the survey network must be placed on non-arable land in places that ensure their safety;

5 in built-up areas, survey network points should be placed so that their location in case of loss can be restored using linear markings from the reference contours of the area.

7, when theodolite tunnels are located in a built-up area, it is necessary to provide for the installation and determination of target points.

Planned survey networks are created by constructing triangulation, laying out theodolite traverses, forward, backward and combined intersections, satellite geodesy methods and laying out electronic tacheometric traverses. Theodolite and tacheometric traverses with their binding to the original network can serve as a survey network.

When developing a survey justification, the location of points in plan and height is determined, as a rule. The heights of survey justification points are determined by geometric and trigonometric leveling.

Technical leveling is used for high-altitude justification of surveys with a relief cross-section of 1 meter or less. Maximum permissible traverse lengths for a relief cross-section: h = 0.25 m – L = 2 km

h = 0.25 m – L = 2 km

h = 0.25 m – L = 2 km

The smaller the cross-section, the shorter the stroke.

The points of the survey network are fixed on the ground with wooden stakes with a trench around them.

Boundary points are secured with pillars with a trench for their mound.

In order to ensure greater safety of geodetic signs, choose, if possible, places for geodetic points that would ensure the safety of signs: road intersections, forest edges and other areas that are little subject to change.

The average position errors of the planned survey network points relative to the nearest points of the geodetic networks should not exceed 0.1 mm in open areas on the plan scale, and 0.15 mm in forest areas.

The average errors in the heights of points of the survey network relative to the nearest points of the geodetic network should not exceed 1/10 in flat areas, and 1/6 in mountainous and foothill areas of the height of the relief section adopted for surveying at a given scale.

The number of points fixed on the ground, the type of centers and signs of the survey base on each plan are determined by the project in accordance with the requirements of technical instructions, and the survey base is built in the form of networks of theodolite traverses or geometric networks.

Adjustment of geodetic networks, Mapsuite - creation of engineering topographic plans, LEICA Geo Office - processing of geodetic measurements, SiteMaster - automation of measurement work, GeometricalGeodesy - solving geodetic problems in the Mathematica system, designed to solve various geodetic problems. This paper presents a solution to similar problems using the language...

They do not turn out to be necessary, then the tool must be developed manually, if this is justified from the point of view of the time spent and material resources. 2. Processing of geodetic measurements using spreadsheets For the initial processing of information obtained as a result of a complex of topographic and geodetic works, I used the “TOGI” program, which is a package...

Electronic devices with the direct participation of the author. Second chapter. The second chapter discusses the developed methods for conducting research on metrological installations and stands for checking and calibrating geodetic instruments for measuring elevations. Method for studying the short-period error in measuring vertical angles of geodetic instruments. An important task when researching...

Created during the development of a geodetic network of a higher order (class). They serve to increase the density of the state network, based on the needs of the assigned engineering and geodetic tasks.

Horizon- A curve that limits the part of the earth's surface accessible to the eye (visible horizon). The visible horizon increases with the height of the observation point and is usually located below the true (in mathematics) horizon - the great circle along which the celestial sphere intersects with a plane perpendicular to the plumb line at the observation point.

Horizontal angle- An angle in the horizontal plane corresponding to a dihedral angle between two vertical planes passing through a plumb line at the apex of the angle. Horizontal angles vary from 0° to 360°.

Geospatial data- Digital data about spatial objects, including information about their location and properties (spatial and non-spatial attributes).

Geodetic basis- The geodetic basis for carrying out engineering and geodetic surveys at construction sites are: - GGS points (planned and high-rise); - points of the geodetic support network, including special-purpose geodetic networks for construction; - points of the geodetic alignment base; - points (points) of the plan-altitude surveying geodetic network and photogrammetric condensation.

Geodetic source data- Geodetic coordinates of the starting point of the reference geodetic network, geodetic azimuth of the direction to one of the adjacent points, determined astronomically, and the height of the geoid at this point above the surface of the adopted earth's ellipsoid. IN Russian Federation The center of the round hall of the Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory is taken as the starting point; here the height of the geoid above the ellipsoid is considered equal to zero.

Leveling- An operation to align the vertical axis of the measuring instrument with a plumb line and (or) bring the sighting axis of the telescope to a horizontal position.

Geodetic point- A point on the earth’s surface, the position of which in a known system of planned coordinates is determined by geodetic methods (triangulation, polygonometry, etc.) and fixed on the ground with a geodetic sign.

Gaussian convergence of meridians- The angle between the geodetic meridian of a given point and a line parallel to the axial meridian of the coordinate zone.

Geodetic signs- Ground structures (in the form of pillars, pyramids, etc.) and underground devices (concrete monoliths), which mark and fix geodetic points on the ground.

Degree- A non-system unit of measurement of angles on a plane or sphere, equal to 1/360 of a circle. A degree is divided into 60 minutes and 3600 seconds.

Urban geodetic network- Designed to provide practical tasks: - topographic survey and updating of city plans of all scales; - land management, surveying, land inventory; - topographic and geodetic surveys in urban areas; - engineering and geodetic preparation of construction projects; - geodetic study of local geodynamic natural and man-made phenomena in the city;
- navigation of land and partially air and water transport.

Geoinformation resources- A set of banks (databases) of cartographic and thematic information.

Geographical coordinates- Latitude and longitude determine the position of a point on the earth's surface. Geographic latitude is the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured from 0 to 90° on both sides of the equator. Geographic longitude is the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian. Longitudes from 0 to 180° east of the beginning of the meridian are called eastern, and to the west - western.

Mountain- A hill on a piece of land on the earth's surface, dome-shaped or conical, with slopes of significant steepness. The relative height of the mountain is more than 200 m.

Geomatics- Scientific and technical direction, combining methods and means of integration information technologies collection, processing and use of spatial data, including geographic information technologies.

Geodetic instruments (geodetic instruments)- Mechanical, optical-mechanical, electro-optical and radio-electronic devices used for geodetic measurements.

Horizontal lines (isohypses)- Closed curved lines on a map connecting points on the earth's surface with the same absolute height and collectively conveying landforms.

Generalization- Generalization geographical images small scale relatively larger ones, carried out in connection with the purpose, subject, study of the object or technical conditions for obtaining the image itself.

Geoid- The figure of the Earth, limited by a level surface, extended under the continents.

Horizontal shooting- A type of topographic survey, as a result of which a plan image of the area is created without the altitude characteristics of its relief.

Geometric accuracy of the map- The degree to which the location of points on the map corresponds to their location in reality.

Geodetic coordinates- Latitude and longitude of a point on the earth’s surface, determined by geodetic measurements of the distance and direction from a point with known geographic coordinates, and the height of the point relative to the so-called. reference ellipsoid.

Geotagged image (snapshot)- An image (image) that has parameters for conversion into the Earth’s spatial coordinate system.

Geoinformation space- An environment in which digital geoinformation and geoimages of various types and purposes operate.

Geomorphological maps- Display the relief of the earth's surface, its origin, age, shapes and their sizes. There are general geomorphological maps with a broad content and specific ones, compiled according to individual relief features.

Geographic grid- A set of meridians and parallels on the theoretically calculated surface of the earth’s ellipsoid, sphere or globe.

Geoportal- Electronic geographical resource located in local network or the Internet, website.

Geospatial reference- The procedure for recalculating the coordinates of an object into the spatial coordinate system of the Earth.

Geodesy- The science of determining the shape, size and gravitational field of the Earth and of measurements on the earth’s surface for displaying it on plans and maps, as well as for carrying out various engineering and national economic activities.

Geographical basis of maps- General geographical elements of a thematic map, which are not included in its special content and facilitate orientation and understanding of the patterns of placement of phenomena related to the theme of the map.

Geodetic satellite receiver- A receiver that provides reception of code-phase information transmitted from a satellite, intended for geodetic work.

Hydrogeological maps- Display the conditions of occurrence and distribution of groundwater; contain data on the quality and productivity of aquifers, the position of ancient foundations of water systems, etc.

Geodetic survey network- A condensation network created for topographic surveys. They are divided into planned and high-rise.

State geodetic network- A system of points fixed on the ground, the position of which is determined in a unified system of coordinates and heights.

Geoinformation technologies (GIS technologies)- A set of techniques, methods and methods of using funds computer technology, allowing to implement functionality GIS.

Hydroisobates- Isolines of the depths of the groundwater table from the earth's surface.

Geoinformatics- Scientific and technical direction that combines the theory of digital modeling of a subject area with the use of spatial data, technology of creation and use geographic information systems, production of geoinformation products and provision of geoinformation services.

Geoinformation mapping- Automated creation and use of maps based on GIS and cartographic data and knowledge databases.

globe- A cartographic image on the surface of the ball, preserving the geometric similarity of the contours and the ratio of areas. There are: geographical globes that display the surface of the Earth, lunar globes that display the surface of the Moon, celestial globes, etc.

Geographic Maps- Maps of the earth's surface, showing the location, state and connections of various natural and social phenomena, their changes over time, development and movements. They are divided by territorial coverage (world, continents, states, etc.), by content (general geographical and thematic), by scale - large - (I: and larger), medium - (from I: and to I: I inclusive) and small-scale (smaller than I:I, as well as by purpose (reference, educational, tourist) and other characteristics.

Heliotrope- The device, the main part is a flat mirror that reflects the sun's rays from one geodetic point to another during triangulation.

Hydrological maps- Display the distribution of water on the earth’s surface, characterize the regime of water bodies and allow the assessment of water resources.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) - Information system, operating with spatial data.

Geocentric coordinates- Quantities that determine the position of points in space in a coordinate system in which the origin coincides with the center of mass of the Earth.

Plotter (plotter, auto-coordinator)- A display device designed to display data in graphic form on paper, plastic, photosensitive material or other media by drawing, engraving, photographic recording or other means.

GLONASS- GNSS developed in Russia

Hydrostatic leveling- Determination of the heights of points on the earth's surface relative to the starting point using communicating vessels with liquid. It is based on the fact that the free surface of the liquid in communicating vessels is at the same level. They are used for continuous study of deformations of engineering structures, high-precision determination of the difference in heights of points separated by wide water barriers, etc.

Geoimage- Any spatio-temporal, large-scale, generalized model of earthly objects or processes, presented in graphical form.

Geometric leveling- A method for determining excesses by sighting with a horizontal beam using a level and measuring the height difference along the slats. The reading accuracy on the slats is I-2 mm (technical leveling) and up to 0.1 mm (high-precision leveling).

State leveling network - one system heights throughout the entire country, it is the high-altitude basis of all topographic surveys and engineering and geodetic work carried out to meet the needs of the economy, science and defense of the country.

Gravimetry- A branch of science about measuring quantities characterizing the Earth’s gravitational field and using them to determine the shape of the Earth, studying its general internal structure, the geological structure of its upper parts, solving some navigation problems, etc.

Eye survey- Simplified topographical survey, carried out using a lightweight tablet, a compass and a sight line to obtain an approximate plan of a route or area of ​​terrain.

Gauss-Kruger projection- Conformal cartographic projection, in which topographic maps of Russia and some other countries are compiled.

Hydroisohypses- Isolines of groundwater table marks relative to the conditional zero surface.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)- A system consisting of a constellation of navigation satellites, monitoring and control services and user equipment, which allows you to determine the location (coordinates) of the consumer receiver antenna.

Hydroisopleths- Isolines of soil moisture at different depths at different times; points of the same water levels in different wells at different times.

Global Positioning System (GPS)- GNSS developed in the USA.

Hydroisotherms- Isolines of water temperature in a given rock mass.